New article published: Phenomenologies of ‘social acceleration’

My latest article with Emma-Louise Jay has now been published 'Phenomenologies of ‘social acceleration’: some consequences and opportunities for education studies in an unknown future'. This paper calls for educationalists to recognise the value of theories of social acceleration to gain a better understanding of contemporary educational practices and how the COVID-19 pandemic is illustrative of this. #openaccess

John Canning & Emma-Louise Jay (2023) Phenomenologies of ‘social acceleration’: some consequences and opportunities for education studies in an unknown future, Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, DOI: 10.1080/01596306.2023.2286999

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A new chapter

I have accepted an offer of voluntary redundancy and will be leaving the University of Brighton next month.

I've been fortunate to work with excellent colleagues at the university for nearly 10 years. and have enjoyed supporting colleagues across the university with their curriculum design, their assessments, their Advance HE fellowships and leading our Postgraduate Certificate in Academic Practice course for our early career lecturers.

However, when the opportunity arose to take voluntary redundancy, I felt this was a good move for me personally and professionally.

I will be looking for further opportunities in the university education/ academic development field. I am open to both temporary and permanent roles starting from late September onwards, so please get in touch if I can be of service. I am based in East Sussex, but willing to travel for the right situation.
My updated CV is now available.

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Answers from Chat GTP

ChatGPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) is generating a lot of interest at present in the learning and teaching community. Should we be concerned about it? Or is there nothing to worry about? I asked it some questions on everything from Freud and Friere to midwifery and cancer cells to find out. (Thoughts will be in future post).

Outline Paulo Freire 's idea in Pedagogy of the Oppressed and their relevance for university education in the UK.

In "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," Paulo Freire critiques traditional education, which he sees as a tool of oppression. He argues that traditional education is based on a "banking" model, where the teacher deposits information into the student, rather than fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. This model, he claims, reinforces the power dynamics that keep marginalized groups oppressed.

Instead, Freire proposes a "problem-posing" education, where students are active participants in their own learning and are encouraged to question and challenge the status quo. He also emphasizes the importance of addressing social issues in education, and the role of educators as "cultural workers" who can help students understand and transform their own experiences.

These ideas have relevance for university education in the UK, as they call for a more critical and socially engaged approach to teaching and learning. By moving away from the traditional "banking" model and fostering a more participatory and empowering approach, universities can work towards addressing social inequalities and promoting greater equity in education.

What did Freire mean by banking?

In "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," Paulo Freire uses the metaphor of "banking" to describe a traditional model of education. In this model, the teacher is seen as the depositor of knowledge, and the student as the passive receptacle into which knowledge is deposited. The teacher's role is to transmit information to the students, who are expected to memorize and repeat it back. This model, Freire argues, perpetuates a hierarchical relationship between the teacher and the student, where the teacher holds all the power and the student is expected to be docile and obedient.

According to Freire, this banking model does not encourage critical thinking or problem-solving skills. Instead, it reinforces the status quo and reinforces the power dynamics that keep marginalized groups oppressed. The students are not encouraged to question or challenge the information they are given, but to accept it as the truth. It also does not connect to the students reality and experiences.

Freire argues that this model of education is not only ineffective, but also actively harmful, as it perpetuates the very inequalities and injustices that it should be working to overcome.

what are the key ideas in bell hooks' book 'Teaching to transgress'

"Teaching to Transgress" is a book by bell hooks that explores the role of education in promoting social change. Some of the key ideas in the book include:

The importance of creating a "space of possibility" in the classroom, where students feel safe to take risks and explore new ideas.

The role of the teacher as a "cultural worker" who can help students understand and transform their own experiences.

The importance of creating a learning environment that is inclusive and welcoming to all students, regardless of their race, gender, class, or other identities.

The need for teachers to recognize and challenge the ways in which power and privilege operate in the classroom, and to actively work to create a more equitable and just learning environment.

The need for education to be grounded in social critique, and to help students understand and challenge the structures of oppression that exist in society.

The importance of encouraging students to question and challenge the status quo, and to develop a critical consciousness that will allow them to actively work for social change.

The need for teachers to be self-reflective and to be willing to learn from their students and to be open to change themselves.

The importance of developing a pedagogy that is engaging and empowering for students, and that recognizes the importance of their lived experiences.

What are omics and what is their relevance to cancer cells?

"Omics" is a term that refers to a collection of disciplines that study the various components of living organisms, such as genetics, genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and epigenetics. These disciplines allow scientists to study the different molecules and cellular processes that make up an organism, and how they interact with one another.

In relation to cancer cells, omics have played an important role in understanding the complexity of cancer, and how it develops and progresses. For example, genomics allows scientists to study the genetic mutations that occur in cancer cells, which can provide insights into the mechanisms that drive cancer growth. Proteomics allows scientists to study the proteins that are produced by cancer cells, and how they contribute to the disease. Metabolomics allows scientists to study the metabolic pathways that are altered in cancer cells, and how they contribute to the disease.

In addition to helping scientists understand the underlying biology of cancer, omics have also led to the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, such as personalized medicine. By using omics techniques, researchers can identify the specific genetic and molecular changes that are unique to each patient's cancer, and tailor treatments that target those changes.

In summary, Omics is an interdisciplinary field of science that studies the molecules and cellular processes of living organisms. It plays an important role in understanding the complexity of cancer and the underlying mechanisms of cancer development and progression. The omics data is also used to develop new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, such as personalized medicine.

why did the meech lake accord fail?

The Meech Lake Accord was a package of constitutional amendments proposed in 1987 by the Canadian government, led by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, aimed at gaining the support and ratification of all provinces for the 1982 constitutional changes related to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms that Quebec had refused to sign.

The accord failed because it failed to gain the support of all provinces. The accord required that all provinces ratify the accord within a three-year deadline. However, by June 1990, the deadline for ratification, the accord had failed to be ratified by the legislatures of Manitoba and Newfoundland. The main reason was that the accord's recognition of Quebec as a "distinct society" within Canada was seen as divisive by many Canadians and by the governments of Manitoba and Newfoundland.

Additionally, some Indigenous people and other minority groups felt that the accord would undermine their rights and status, as it would give more powers to Quebec and could lead to the erosion of their rights. The accord also faced opposition from some political leaders and groups in Quebec, who felt that it did not go far enough in recognizing Quebec's special status within Canada.

In summary, the Meech Lake Accord failed because it failed to gain the support and ratification of all provinces within the three-year deadline. The main reasons for the failure were opposition from some provinces over the recognition of Quebec as a "distinct society" within Canada, concerns from Indigenous people and other minority groups that the accord would undermine their rights, and opposition from some political leaders and groups in Quebec who felt that it did not go far enough in recognizing Quebec's special status within Canada.

compare and contrast the ideas of freud and jung

Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung were both influential figures in the field of psychology, but their ideas and theories have some important differences.

Freud is best known for his work on psychoanalysis, which focuses on the unconscious mind and the role of repressed thoughts, feelings, and experiences in shaping behavior and mental health. He proposed that the mind is divided into three parts: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. He also proposed that our behavior and feelings are influenced by our early childhood experiences, particularly our sexual and aggressive instincts, which he called the id.

Jung, on the other hand, developed his own psychoanalytic theory, which he called Analytical Psychology. Jung believed that the unconscious mind is not just a repository of repressed thoughts and feelings, but is also the source of creativity and spiritual experience. He also emphasized the importance of personal mythology and the collective unconscious, which he believed was a shared store of archetypes and symbols that underlie all human experience. Jung also believed that the goal of psychotherapy is not just to relieve the symptoms of mental illness but to help the individual to achieve a state of individuation, a process of integrating the conscious and unconscious aspects of the self.

In summary, both Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung were influential figures in the field of psychology and both of them developed their own psychoanalytic theories. But their ideas have some important differences. Freud focused on the unconscious mind and the role of repressed thoughts, feelings, and experiences in shaping behavior and mental health, while Jung emphasized the importance of personal mythology and the collective unconscious, and believed that the goal of psychotherapy is not just to relieve the symptoms of mental illness but to help the individual to achieve a state of individuation.

what are the experiences of French people living in Brighton?

I do not have any specific information about the experiences of French people living in Brighton. However, it is likely that the experiences of French people living in Brighton would vary depending on factors such as their individual circumstances, socioeconomic status, and the length of time they have lived in the city.

In general, French expats living in Brighton would probably experience some cultural differences and may face some challenges in adapting to a new environment, such as language barriers and navigating a different healthcare system. However, Brighton is known for its diverse and inclusive community and there are many French-speaking communities, which would make it easier for French expats to connect with people from their own culture.

Brighton is a popular tourist destination and it has a large French population and a lot of French-run businesses, so French expats would have access to many of the amenities, products and services they are familiar with. Additionally, Brighton has a lot of cultural offerings, such as French language classes, language exchange groups and cultural events, that would help French expats to integrate into the community.

In summary, The experiences of French people living in Brighton would vary depending on their individual circumstances, socioeconomic status, and the length of time they have lived in the city. However, Brighton is known for its diverse and inclusive community and there are many French-speaking communities, which would make it easier for French expats to connect with people from their own culture. Additionally, Brighton has a lot of cultural offerings, such as French language classes, language exchange groups and cultural events, that would help French expats to integrate into the community.

generate a syllabus for a university level introduction to organic chemistry course

Introduction to Organic Chemistry

Course Description: This course is an introduction to the basic concepts of organic chemistry, including the properties, reactions, and synthesis of organic compounds. Topics covered include:

Basic concepts of organic chemistry, including bonding, isomerism, and functional groups

Nomenclature and structure determination of organic compounds

Reactivity and mechanisms of organic reactions

Synthesis and analysis of organic compounds

Course Goals: Upon completion of this course, students will be able to:

Understand and use basic concepts of organic chemistry, including bonding, isomerism, and functional groups

Correctly name and draw the structures of organic compounds

Predict the products of organic reactions and understand the mechanisms of those reactions

Plan and carry out simple organic syntheses

Textbook:

"Organic Chemistry" by T. W. Graham Solomons and Craig B. Fryhle

Course Schedule:

Week 1: Introduction to Organic Chemistry

Basic concepts of organic chemistry, including bonding, isomerism, and functional groups

Nomenclature and structure determination of organic compounds

Week 2: Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

Properties and reactions of alkanes and cycloalkanes

Nomenclature and structure determination of alkanes and cycloalkanes

Week 3: Alkenes and Alkynes

Properties and reactions of alkenes and alkynes

Nomenclature and structure determination of alkenes and alkynes

Week 4: Aromatic Compounds

Properties and reactions of aromatic compounds

Nomenclature and structure determination of aromatic compounds

Week 5: Stereochemistry

Stereochemistry of organic compounds

Chirality and optical activity

Week 6: Reactions and Synthesis

Reactivity and mechanisms of organic reactions

Synthesis and analysis of organic compounds

Week 7: Review and Exam

Assessment:

Quizzes (20%)

Midterm Exam (30%)

Final Exam (50%)

Attendance and Participation:

Attendance is mandatory, more than 2 absences will affect the final grade.

Active participation in class discussions is expected and will be taken into consideration for the final grade.

This is a sample syllabus, the content and structure may vary depending on the institution and the professor's preference. The course schedule, assessments, and evaluation criteria can be adjusted accordingly.

generate a learning and teaching strategy for a uk university

Learning and Teaching Strategy for a UK University

Active Learning: Encourage students to actively engage with the material through class discussions, group work, and problem-solving activities. This approach will help students to better understand and retain the material, and to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Blended Learning: Incorporate both online and in-person learning to provide students with a variety of learning experiences and to accommodate different learning styles. This could include online lectures, readings, and quizzes, as well as in-person class discussions, group work, and lab activities.

Self-Directed Learning: Encourage students to take ownership of their own learning by providing them with the tools and resources they need to succeed. This could include online tutorials, study guides, and practice problems, as well as opportunities for peer-to-peer tutoring and mentoring.

Assessment for Learning: Use formative assessments to provide students with feedback on their understanding of the material, and to identify areas where they may need additional support. This can include quizzes, writing assignments, and in-class discussions, as well as informal assessments such as class polls and "exit tickets."

Inclusive Teaching: Create a welcoming and inclusive learning environment that respects and values the diverse backgrounds and experiences of all students. This can include incorporating multiple perspectives and voices into class discussions, providing accommodations for students with disabilities, and addressing issues of bias and discrimination.

Feedback: Provide students with regular and timely feedback on their performance, so that they can understand their strengths and weaknesses and make improvements. This can include written feedback on assignments, as well as verbal feedback during class discussions and office hours.

Collaborative learning: Encourage students to work together and to learn from each other in order to promote critical thinking, problem-solving, and teamwork skills.

Real-world Connections: Connecting class material to real-world scenarios and applications will help students to better understand the relevance and importance of what they are learning.

Reflective Practice: Encourage students to reflect on their learning process and the strategies they used to achieve their learning goals. This can include keeping a learning journal, self-assessment and peer-assessment.

The strategies mentioned here are some examples of how to approach teaching and learning in a university, and can be adjusted to suit the specific needs of the course, subject and students.

Outline J S mill's ideas on representative government

John Stuart Mill was a political philosopher who wrote extensively on the topic of representative government. Some of his key ideas include:

The importance of democracy: Mill believed that representative government is the best form of government because it allows for the participation of all citizens in decision-making. He believed that democracy is the only form of government that can truly represent the will of the people and that it is the only system that can provide for the protection of individual rights.

The role of representation: Mill believed that representative government is necessary to ensure that the interests of all citizens are taken into account, especially those who are unable to participate directly in government. He believed that representatives should be chosen by the people through free and fair elections, and that they should be held accountable to the people through regular elections and the ability to recall them from office.

The importance of political education: Mill believed that an informed and politically educated citizenry is essential for the proper functioning of representative government. He believed that citizens need to be educated about the issues and the workings of government so that they can make informed decisions when choosing their representatives.

The role of minorities: Mill believed that representative government should be designed to protect the rights of minorities, even if they are in the minority. He believed that the rights of minorities should be protected through the use of constitutional safeguards, such as the protection of individual rights and the separation of powers.

The importance of individual freedom: Mill believed that individual freedom is essential for the proper functioning of representative government. He believed that individuals should be free to express their opinions and to participate in the political process without fear of repression or punishment.

In summary, J S Mill's ideas on representative government emphasized the importance of democracy, the role of representation, the importance of political education, the role of minorities, and the importance of individual freedom for the proper functioning of representative government.

What were the religious grievances of the participants in the Rebecca riots?

The Rebecca riots were a series of protests that occurred in Wales in the mid-19th century, primarily in the southern and western parts of the country. The participants in the riots, who were mostly rural workers, had a variety of grievances, including economic and social issues. However, one of the main religious grievances that contributed to the riots was the perception of religious discrimination against non-conformists, such as Methodists, Baptists, and Congregationalists.

At the time, the Anglican Church held a privileged position in Wales, and many non-conformist denominations felt that they were treated as second-class citizens. They were not well represented in the government and they had limited access to education and other public services. They also felt that they were not given equal access to jobs and opportunities.

Additionally, many non-conformist chapels were being taxed by the government and these taxes were seen as unjust and oppressive by the non-conformist communities. They perceived it as a way to suppress their religious practices and beliefs.

In summary, the Rebecca riots were a series of protests that occurred in Wales in the mid-19th century. The participants in the riots had a variety of grievances, including economic and social issues. However, one of the main religious grievances that contributed to the riots was the perception of religious discrimination against non-conformists, such as Methodists, Baptists, and Congregationalists, who felt that they were treated as second-class citizens and their religious practices and beliefs were being suppressed by the government through taxes and other forms of discrimination.

What are the ethical implications of advances in stem cell research

Advances in stem cell research have the potential to bring about significant medical breakthroughs and treatments for various diseases, but also raise a number of ethical considerations. Some of the main ethical implications of stem cell research include:

Embryonic stem cell research: The use of embryonic stem cells raises ethical concerns because the cells are obtained from embryos, which are destroyed in the process. This has led to debate about the moral status of embryos and the rights and obligations of researchers.

Human cloning: Advances in stem cell research have also led to discussions about the potential for human cloning, which raises ethical concerns about the manipulation of human life and the potential for abuse of the technology.

Safety and regulation: With the rapid advances in stem cell research, there are concerns about the safety and regulation of the field. There is a need to ensure that the research is conducted ethically and that the treatments developed are safe and effective.

Access to treatments: Stem cell research has the potential to lead to treatments that can be expensive. There is a concern that such treatments may only be available to a select few, leading to further inequalities in healthcare access.

Ethical Implications for the donors: Stem cell research may raise ethical concerns for the donors, as the source of the cells is not always clear. This may lead to issues of exploitation and lack of informed consent.

In summary, Advances in stem cell research have the potential to bring about significant medical breakthroughs and treatments for various diseases, but also raise a number of ethical considerations. These include the use of embryonic stem cells, human cloning, safety and regulation, access to treatments and ethical implications for the donors. It's essential that stem cell research is conducted ethically and with the appropriate regulations in place to address these concerns.

what were the experience of working class people living in nineteenth century brighton

The experience of working-class people living in Brighton during the 19th century would have varied depending on their occupation, social status, and individual circumstances. However, in general, working-class people would have faced significant economic and social challenges.

Poverty: Many working-class people in Brighton lived in poverty, with low wages and limited opportunities for social mobility. They would have struggled to afford basic necessities such as food, clothing, and housing.

Poor living conditions: The working-class people in Brighton would have lived in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, with inadequate housing and poor sanitation. They would have been at a higher risk of disease and illness due to these living conditions.

Limited access to education: Many working-class children in Brighton would have had limited access to education, with many forced to leave school at a young age to work and support their families. This would have limited their opportunities for social and economic advancement.

Exploitation and discrimination: Working-class people in Brighton would have faced exploitation and discrimination in the workplace. They would have been paid low wages and often subjected to dangerous and unhealthy working conditions, with little job security or protection from their employers.

Limited leisure opportunities: Working-class people would have had limited leisure opportunities and would have had to rely on inexpensive forms of entertainment such as pub gatherings, street performances, and workingmen's clubs.

In summary, the experience of working-class people living in Brighton during the 19th century would have been marked by poverty, poor living conditions, limited access to education, exploitation and discrimination, and limited leisure opportunities. They would have faced significant economic and social challenges as they struggled to make ends meet and improve their living conditions.

crime in victorian worthing

Information about crime in Victorian Worthing specifically is not readily available, but it is likely that it would have been similar to crime in other towns and cities during the Victorian era in England.

Property crime: Property crime, such as theft and burglary, would have been a significant problem in Victorian Worthing. The working-class population would have been particularly vulnerable, as they often lived in poverty and had few possessions to protect.

Street crime: Street crime, such as pickpocketing and mugging, would have been a concern in Victorian Worthing, particularly in crowded areas such as markets and fairs.

Violent crime: Violent crime, such as assault and murder, would have occurred in Victorian Worthing, although it would have been less common than property and street crime.

Public order offenses: Public order offenses, such as drunkenness and disorderly conduct, would have been a common problem in Victorian Worthing. The police would have had to deal with rowdy behavior, particularly on weekends and holidays.

White-collar crime: White-collar crime, such as fraud and embezzlement, would have been less common in Victorian Worthing, but it would have still occurred, particularly among the middle and upper classes.

Punishment: Punishment for crime in Victorian Worthing would have been severe and harsher than the current system. Punishments included transportation to penal colonies, hanging, and imprisonment with hard labor.

In summary, crime in Victorian Worthing would have been similar to other towns and cities during the Victorian era in England. It would have included property crime, street crime, violent crime, public order offenses, and white-collar crime. Punishments were severe, designed to be deterrents.

who was mrs rochester?

Mrs. Rochester is a fictional character from the novel "Jane Eyre" written by Charlotte Bronte in 1847. The novel is set in the early 19th century and tells the story of Jane Eyre, an orphan who becomes a governess and falls in love with her employer, Mr. Rochester.

Mrs. Rochester is the wife of Mr. Rochester and is confined in the attic of Mr. Rochester's residence. She is revealed to be insane, locked away by her husband after attempting to burn down his house with him in it. The character of Mrs. Rochester represents the societal pressure to conform and the consequences of going against the norm.

Throughout the novel, Mr. Rochester keeps her existence hidden from Jane, but it is revealed later in the story when Mr. Rochester's house is set on fire by his wife. Her confinement and her madness are the product of societal expectations and the pressure to conform to them.

In summary, Mrs. Rochester is a fictional character from the novel "Jane Eyre" written by Charlotte Bronte in 1847, she is the wife of the protagonist Mr. Rochester and is confined in the attic of Mr. Rochester's residence. Her character represents societal pressure to conform and the consequences of going against the norm.

compare and contrast waugh's work scoop and decline and fall

"Scoop" and "Decline and Fall" are both novels written by Evelyn Waugh in the 20th century. Both novels are satirical and use wit and irony to comment on society and its flaws. However, there are also some key differences in their themes, style, and characters.

Setting: "Scoop" is set in the world of journalism and takes place in a fictional African country. "Decline and Fall" is set in an exclusive English boarding school and in London's high society.

Themes: "Scoop" satirizes the nature of journalism and the way it can manipulate the truth. "Decline and Fall" is a more general satire of the upper class, its decadence, and the hypocrisy of the society.

Characters: "Scoop" features a cast of eccentric and larger-than-life journalists, while "Decline and Fall" is centered around the characters of Paul Pennyfeather and Margot Beste-Chetwynde, both of whom are outsiders in the high society they find themselves in.

Style: "Scoop" is written in a more straightforward and comedic style, while "Decline and Fall" is characterized by its irony, wit and a darker, more biting tone.

Plot: "Scoop" is a fast-paced comedy of errors where the protagonist, William Boot, gets accidentally sent to cover a war in a fictional African country. "Decline and Fall" is a more complex and darker story of a man's downfall, as Paul Pennyfeather is expelled from Oxford University and ends up working in a boys' school before being falsely accused of a crime and sent to prison.

In summary, "Scoop" and "Decline and Fall" are both novels written by Evelyn Waugh, they are both satirical and use wit and irony to comment on society and its flaws. However, they differ in setting, themes, characters, style and plot. "Scoop" is set in the world of journalism, satirizes the nature of journalism and is written in a more straightforward and comedic style. "Decline and Fall" is set in high society, is a more general satire of the upper class and is characterized by its irony, wit and a darker, more biting tone.

reflect on your practice as a student midwife and relate this to the development of your personal values and beliefs.

As a student midwife, I have had the opportunity to work with a diverse group of individuals and families, which has allowed me to develop my personal values and beliefs. Through my practice, I have come to understand the importance of providing holistic care that addresses not only the physical needs of the mother and baby but also the emotional and social needs.

I have learned that listening to the women and families I work with is essential in providing personalized care that meets their specific needs and expectations. I believe that all individuals have the right to make informed decisions about their healthcare and that it is my role as a midwife to provide them with the information they need to make informed decisions.

I have also come to value the importance of continuity of care, and the role that building trust and rapport with the women and families I work with plays in achieving this. I believe that continuity of care allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the individual's needs and leads to better outcomes.

In addition, I have learned the importance of interprofessional collaboration and the role that it plays in providing the best possible care for women and families. I believe that working with other healthcare professionals allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the individual's needs and leads to better outcomes.

Overall, my practice as a student midwife has reinforced my belief in the importance of providing holistic, personalized, and evidence-based care that is respectful and empowering for the women and families I work with. I will continue to reflect on my practice and strive to improve my skills and knowledge to provide the best possible care to the women and families I work with.

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The sprouting of a dormant seed


'Being and time' by Martin HeideggerA recent tweet from my colleague Emma gave me cause for reflection. Emma shared how Heidegger’s ideas are important to her. She may sometimes teach about Heidegger, but students may or may not be interested in Heidegger or in how much she cares about his work.

Back in the late 90s/ early 00s many of my fellow PhD students at Bristol were into Heidegger. My masters’ degree (1997-8) covered much in the way of ‘continental philosophy’, but in all honesty I found such philosophy self-indulgent and of marginal interest to the concerns of someone studying what was to my mind a human geography course. I had time for Foucault and Baudrillard, but others struck me as irrelevant.

This is not a post about Heidegger per se, but last year I read ‘Being and Time’ and much regretted having been so dismissive. I found a lot of ideas of relevance to the educational research I now conduct. For the teacher, this is a reminder that that:

The significance of what you teach may not be understood/ appreciated immediately, but you have brought the student from a point of not having heard about something or someone to a point that they have.

Ideas/concepts/ skills can lie dormant in a student mind for a long time (perhaps 20+ years), then come to fruition. The ideas/ concepts/ skills were ‘there’, but not developed.

No student survey/ outcomes data is ever going to capture this.

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The Idea of the University Defined and Illustrated by John Henry Newman. Discourse 1

Recently came across the idea of recording a book chapter to engage your students with reading. Just recorded Cardinal Newman's first discourse . I'm not exactly Stephen Fry but here goes!

This is the first of nine discourses delivered in 1852 in Dublin by Cardinal John Henry Newman.
The Idea of a University Defined and Illustrated In Nine Discourses Delivered to the Catholics of Dublin
Text freely available from Project Gutenberg (public domain)
The discourse is read by John Canning

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Is it helpful to estimate how long it will take for someone else to read something?

A collection clocks telling different times
Photo by Jon Tyson on Unsplash
How long will it take you to read this post?

It depends of course. Two minutes? Five minutes, 15 minutes, an hour? It depends on how fast you can read generally, how carefully you read it, whether you are making notes, whether you need to read it again to understand the point being made or whether there is going to be exam on the content of this post later today. If you have certain disabilities or read English as a second (or third or fourth language) it may take you longer than someone who does not have a disability or is a native user of English. If the content is entirely new to you or uses concepts you do not yet understand then it is likely to take you longer.

Surely it takes as long it takes? However, in my job as a lecturer I am asked to specify how many hours students should spend on independent study in the module descriptor. I set pre-readings where I might advise students that this chapter will take (say) about an hour to read – however many report back that they take longer; this may make them feel they are not clever enough for this course and that ‘everyone else’ has no problem getting through the reading in the time suggested. It can dent confidence as they get to grips with new, unfamiliar material.

This issue came into focus for me recently in my capacity as a learner. I am taking an internal leadership course run by my employer. The pre-reading for the session took me a lot longer than the suggested time. While I could probably have ‘read’ the material in the suggested time, I also took notes, so I could come back to it when discussing the reading in the live session – I am not the sort of person who reads something then remembers everything I read. Does this mean I am not academically able enough to do the course? Is there something ‘wrong’ with me? Alternatively, are the tutors unrealistic in their expectations?

These are probably the wrong questions. We ask our students to read certain items because we believe them to be (at least one of) important, essential, useful, interesting, helpful or thought-provoking regarding their studies. The readings my tutors designated met all these criteria. While the question of too much or little is an important one, but is it remotely helpful to state how long it should take me to read it?

Photo by Jon Tyson on Unsplash

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The Eastern Townships in Quebec History

Preface

The bulk of the information in this report is taken from the concluding chapter (chapter 9) of my PhD thesis From Yankees to québécois: Nation-building and national identity in Quebec’s Eastern Townships (2002). The original thesis contains much content which satisfies academic criteria, but may not be of much interest to those whose interest lies with the Eastern Townships itself.

After briefly summarising my findings chapter by chapter, I make three major contentions from the thesis under the headings of ‘The deterritorialisation and reterritorialisation of Quebec nationalism’, ‘Building the multicultural nation’ and ‘Politics’. Finally, I conclude this report with some concluding thoughts about the future of the Eastern Townships.

John Canning

September 2002
1 Chapter by chapter summary

In chapter 1, I note that nationalism needs to be examined on both a macro and a micro scale. In other words any study of nationalism must examine, not only historical ‘national’ texts, but also must be grounded in local experience. Secondly, nationalism must be a unifying force which transcends all forms of difference. It also must appear natural and self-evident. Nationalism changes shape in order to accommodate these requirements. Thirdly, nationalism is continuously contested within a state. This can be a direct contestation through a separatist movement as in Quebec, but all nationalisms are contested, even if they appear to be benign, banal or mundane.

In the second chapter I explored the notion of multiculturalism. With reference to the work of Lefebvre (1991), I drew upon notions of social space as well upon ideas and philosophies of multiculturalism. My most important contention from this chapter was to demonstrate that multiculturalism must not be seen as the diametric opposite of nationalism. Nationalism does, and always has changed shape to accommodate multiculturalism. Moreover, multiculturalism is a phenomenon which has existed almost since the beginning of time and is not a post-World War Two concept. The examination of local spaces is very important in understanding the ways in which nationalism and multiculturalism are negotiated.

I devoted the third chapter to methodological issues and briefly outlining the sources used in my study. This chapter served not only as a discussion of methodology, but also related my situatedness to my work in Quebec. I concluded the chapter by noting that the thesis is very much a personal narrative. I did not go to Quebec as an outside observer per se, but I became an active participant in Quebec life for the period of time I was studying there.

The fourth and fifth chapters were largely historical in nature. Whilst they do serve as an historical introduction for readers not familiar with Quebec and Canada (Chapter 4) and the Eastern Townships and Knowlton (Chapter 5), this is not their primary purpose. Instead these chapters are more concerned with identifying key features of the macro-historical discourses upon which nationalisms and counter-nationalisms are constructed. These chapters conclude by noting that these macro-historical discourses along with their spatial elements continue to unfold in the present and the future. The times and spaces of these historical meta-narratives are always subject to changes in interpretation, as so are the ideological purposes for which these meta-narratives are appropriated.

Chapters 6-8 draw principally upon interviews I carried out with mostly anglophone respondents in the Eastern Townships. In Chapter 6 I examined anglophone perspectives on the PQ. This chapter was strongly bound up with legal issues and demonstrated the importance of reterritorialising Quebec as a French society where it has never been a French society, through the enforcement of French language laws upon a community that has an anglophone majority. I also identified how anglophones feel excluded from the space of Quebec politics- that is to say that Quebec politics is concerned principally with issues of French identity and there is no space for an anglophone contribution to debates about the future of Quebec. Respondents often related the policies of the PQ on issues as varied as taxation, government structure, road building and planning regulations, as being intrinsically bound up with their separatist objectives. This separatist objective was perceived as being the one single aim of the PQ.

The seventh chapter drew strongly on the notion of social space, an idea which I introduced in the second chapter. By examining social space at a local level I found that the idea of a French space and an English space was useful, but to a very limited extent. In essence, most spaces can be seen simultaneously as spaces of togetherness and spaces of separation. I examined this with reference to celebrations such as St Jean-Baptiste and Canada Day whereby there is a simultaneous discourse of community division and community unity. A strong emphasis was placed throughout on good anglophone-francophone relations and although conflicts do occasionally occur, these conflicts are usually benign. I also looked at the role of bilinguals in negotiating between these spaces and found that bilinguals were instrumental in negotiating shared spaces.

Chapter 8 examined Townshippers’ identification with their communities, the Townships, Quebec, Canada and the rest of the world. Townshippers have felt othered by other English Canadians as well as by francophones. However, there is also a strong attachment to being Quebecers and an increased acceptance of Quebec’s French fact. I have emphasised the historical importance of Quebec church and state in binding anglophone Townshippers into the identities and cultures of the Province of Quebec.

It follows that the Townships must not be seen as an appendage to, but as a fundamental part of Quebec history, culture, politics and nationalisms. My next three major contentions elucidate this.

2 The deterritorialisation and reterritorialisation of Quebec nationalism
1. Building a national history.

The macro-historical discourse or mémoire upon which nationalism is constructed is not only selective in terms of time, but also in terms of space. The ‘history’ of Quebec is, at best, only part of the history of part of the Quebec nation’s territory. Quebec’s ‘national history’ is not the history of the territory of Quebec; it is essentially a history of the eastern section of the St Lawrence River. This neglects other regions of Quebec such as the Eastern Townships. Hence, in the construction of a nation’s macro-history specific parts of the nation are rendered more important than others. The ideology of nationalism is underpinned by the notion that the history of a part of the nation is equal to the history of the whole. Any explanation of the history of the Eastern Townships verses the history of Quebec demonstrates that ‘national’ histories are constructed through a deterritorialisation and a reterritorialisation, a synecdoche in which the part is presented as the whole. The history of the Eastern Townships is counter-intuitive to the history Quebec as a whole, as it is usually constructed. Whilst the history of Quebec is presented as being Catholic and French, the history of the Eastern Townships is presented as Protestant and English with a strong ethic of local democracy. The construction of Quebec nationalism has privileged the history of the St Lawrence seigneuries and has neglected the English and Protestant heritages of other regions of Quebec such as the Eastern Townships.

On one hand a national discourse, the macro-history upon which an effective nationalism is constructed, depends upon the creation of a mass unity which disregards diversity. However, a complete denial of the concept of nationhood denies a common experience, shared through the language, religion, material experience and the institutions of the State. The role of the Church and State (both given prominence by Sack (1986) in his discourse on the ‘control’ of territory’) in Quebec is imperative in the (continuing) creation of a territorial unity of Quebec. Over the past 200 years the people of the Eastern Townships have shaped, and been shaped by the québécois Church and State, mediated mostly through the medium of French. There may be remnants of a ‘Yankee’ New England heritage, but the geographies of law, Church and State power are those of Quebec and Canada, not of the USA.

Hence, the nation building project of the PQ depends upon the deterritorialisation and reterritorialisation of Quebec nationalism, notably through the medium of the law. Legislation such as Bill 101 produces a discourse not only of preserving French in North America, but also upon making Quebec French where it is not French already. Hence policies seeking to preserve and promote French, impact upon communities like Knowlton which are majority anglophone communities.

The notion of the Eastern Townships as different from the ‘rest of Quebec’ is a contention which has important limitations. Discourses of Quebec’s Catholic, Church-led, French history verses the history of the English Protestant Eastern Townships lead to this idea, but chapters 4 and 5 of the thesis represent as much a contrast of imaginations as much as realities. I am certain that had I undertaken my fieldwork in Quebec City, in Lac St Jean, the Gaspésie, in Montreal, or even in the ‘heartland’ of the St Lawrence Valley, I could have still written Chapter 5 as an antipode to Chapter 4.
2. The Eastern Townships

The historical mémoire and geosophy of a community or a region is vitally important to the study of contemporary articulations of nationalism. I do not believe it is contrived to state that Townshippers exhibit a unique set of values that are place-influenced and different to values found elsewhere in Quebec and in Canada. Maintenance of ‘English’ and ‘Yankee’ identities combined with identities relating to Canada and the Province of Quebec make the Eastern Townships unique. The values of Townshippers when set against the Quebec’s ‘macro-history’ differ serendipitously as well as in clear ways. Townshippers display strong anti-government sentiments, which are not simply a pragmatic response to unfavourable provincial language laws of Quebec’s recent history, but also relate to a ‘tradition’ of ‘New England’ town meetings and a strong emphasis on local democracy which goes against Quebec’s ‘tradition’ of being led by elites, firstly the church and then by the state. Historically, as the mémoire (on which the notion of tradition is a part) is constructed, leadership in the Eastern Townships was locally based whereas the French-Canadians were ‘led’ from the outside. This mémoire is important inasmuch as it contributes to nationalism, rather than as a historical reality.
3. English Canada

Quebec nationalisms are not static in time and in space as Chapter 4 clearly demonstrates. Moreover, these shifting social spaces of Quebec nationalism have strongly impacted upon the identities of English Townshippers. There is an increased acceptance of the idea of Quebec being an essentially ‘French’ province and the idea that anglophones are a minority. This minority status is being exploited by organisations such as the Townshippers Association who are promoting an understanding that if English Townshippers recognise themselves as a numerical and political minority this will increase the cohesiveness of the English community. This acceptance of minority status runs alongside the creation of a particular Quebec-English identity that differs from other English Canadian identities. Perhaps the most important propaganda coup for the PQ has been in terms of convincing English Canadians outside of Quebec that nobody speaks English in Quebec. The creation of a Quebec English identity has as much to do with a feeling of rejection by other English Canadians as it does with a feeling of alienation from the cultural and linguistic policies of recent Quebec governments.
3 Building the multicultural nation
1. Unity and Diversity

Whilst the nationalism of the PQ has undoubtedly shifted increasingly towards the idea of a multicultural Quebec, the desire to unify Quebec through the French language remains. It is inaccurate to suggest that nationalism can be equated directly with the idea of ‘unity’ and multiculturalism with the idea of ‘diversity’. This leads to the misguided conclusion that nationalism and multiculturalism are two different paths leading in two distinct directions- rather these paths can be one and same. Nationalism does not seek to suppress diversity; instead nationalism seeks to create unity from diversity through the processes of deterritorialisation and reterritorialisation as well as finding new building blocks for the foundations of national identity; in the Quebec case this is the French language. Nation building is always dependent upon the unification of territories that are diverse in terms of their identities and their histories. The current nation-building project of the separatists in Quebec does not represent a unique never-seen-before process of nationalism.

In examining nationalism and multiculturalism in a local context it is possible to see that the laws, policies and directives which the Quebec government has made to promote their articulations of Quebec nationalism often have very different outcomes to those which may be expected. One may presume that Bill 22, which made French the official language of Quebec would be to the benefit of the francophone population and to the detriment of the anglophone population. However, in the Eastern Townships there is a powerful case for suggesting that the exact opposite is true. Increased French language teaching in English schools has ensured that a new generation of anglophones has grown up bilingual, whilst their francophone peers are more likely to be unilingual. This means that anglophones are more likely to get jobs which require bilinguals to mediate between the Quebec government and the francophone majority on one hand and the North American (mostly anglophone) customers on the other. Jobs that require this mediation are not only the prestigious jobs, but also include less prestigious jobs such as working in some shops.(1) Ironically, laws such as Bill 101 are most effective by making it less likely, or protecting against an increased likelihood that francophones will leave Quebec for jobs elsewhere in Canada and in the United States. There is the dilemma that ‘Individual interests’ and ‘collective interests’ appear to be at odds.

Historical ‘memory’, events and values are often presented as being the basis of conflicts between different articulations of nationalism in Canada and in Quebec. For example Canada Day is normally presented as an English-Canadian institution and St Jean-Baptiste Day as a French-Canadian celebration. However, these events are annually celebrated as a show of unity between anglophones and francophones at the local level. Whilst the notion of difference is maintained this sense of difference is appropriated for purposes of community unity. Similarly, through the mechanisms of ecumenicalism even religion can be presented as being as much about ‘Christian unity’ as about long-standing religious differences which are fundamental to understanding the history of the Eastern Townships, Quebec and Canada. Anglophone-francophone differences are celebrated at the local level; hence there is a simultaneous discourse of both difference and unity.

2. Les cultures québécoises.

However, at the same time Townshippers are, and remain Quebecers. Townshippers past and present have played an important role in the shaping of modern Quebec. The ‘English Townships’ have never been an English colony of French Quebec. Although the cultural heartland of French-Canada or the québécois has always lain elsewhere, the Townships have shaped, as well as been shaped by the spaces of Quebec nationalisms. Institutions of Quebec history such as the Catholic Church and Provincial government have always served to bond English Townshippers and other Quebecers with their francophone neighbours and with other parts of Quebec. Historically, the institutions of the state bound Townshippers with the habitant in the St Lawrence Valley, the industrial workers of Montreal and the fishermen of the Gaspésie more than with their English-speaking neighbours south of the 45th parallel. This binding still remains, most poignantly through the Quebec legal system.

Bélanger (1994, 17) invokes the concept of “les cultures québécoises.” laying emphasis on the plurality of cultures in Quebec. There is not a ‘québécois’ culture from which English Quebecers are English Townshippers are excluded, but English-Canadian identities can be viewed as a québécois culture among many. Bélanger discovered two very contrasting ‘cultures québécoises’ within just a few miles of each other in two different villages. The macro-historical discourse I present in chapter 4 of the original thesis is not a representation of past reality, but a spatially, temporally partial representation of Quebec’s past. French Quebec is highly diverse. The cultural heartland occupied by the habitant was not the universal experience of the French Quebecer before the 1960s. Montreal, Lac Saint-Jean, the Gaspésie, the Outaouais, the ‘native’ peoples of Quebec also represent ‘les cultures québécoises’. Lest the inclusion of the latter be seen as being obscure the very name of ‘Québec’ is not a French name, but a micmac word.(2)

Nationalism and multiculturalism look very different when examined in a local context. When these ideas are presented purely in the realm of ideas it appears that nationalism and multiculturalism are incompatible concepts rather than complementary forms. This is Penrose’s (1994) oversight in her analysis of the PQ and multicultural Quebec as she limits her understanding of Quebec nationalism to (a simplified interpretation) discourses of the PQ vis-à-vis the fact of multicultural (English, French, native, other) Quebec. The promotion of French Quebec on one hand and the acknowledgement of linguistic diversity on the other hand, when presented in the realm of ideas appear to be a recipe for conflict. However, when placed in a local context it is evident that the everyday life practices of French and English Quebecers produce very difference outcomes. Nationalism impacts upon life practices and it is a practice itself. These practices do not amount to major conflicts between peoples with different ideologies, but are formed in the often banal practices of everyday life. There is a gulf of difference between the outcomes expected when examining nationalisms as conflicting ideas as to examining nationalism as an everyday practice.
4 Politics

Anglophone Townshippers are conscious about being different from their francophone neighbours, but this in itself is instructive in reference to Canadian and Quebec politics. Whilst maintaining a hostile opposition to Quebec ‘separatists’ and ‘nationalists’ they do not apply these labels to their francophone friends and neighbours, even when these friends and neighbours are supporters of Quebec sovereignty. ‘Blame’ for laws such as Bill 101 is attributed to outsiders to their communities, usually politicians, but very rarely to individuals in their own community. There is the strong notion that francophones in their own community are ‘sound’ and hostility is reserved for unknown ‘others’. In remembering the referendum there was a strong discourse of hostility towards the politicians initiating it, though not towards their neighbours who support the sovereignty agenda.

The irony is that Townshippers are prepared to feel as much an affinity to strangers in British Columbia through the ideology of nationalism, as they feel a non-affinity to their friends and neighbours who they know and in most respects feel they have far more in common with. Canada is as much an idea set up in opposition to the nationalism of the PQ as it is a positive sense of belonging.

There is also a strong notion of comparative politics which pervades Townshipper’s interpretation of Quebec politics. A general underlying assumption of comparative studies appears to be that the comparison is within the remit of the researcher than the respondent. However, residents of Quebec to whom I spoke compared Quebec with a host of other ‘nationalist’ conflict situations ranging from Scotland and Catalonia through to Northern Ireland and Yugoslavia. As researchers have neglected local studies of nationalism they have failed to understand that citizens who are informed about other nationalisms through the media, undertake comparisons themselves. Although their understandings may not necessarily be thorough, comparisons between Quebec and other situations are often made. This comparative analysis is important as it illustrates that the others upon which nationalism are constructed need not be ‘in-situ’ but may be thousands of miles away. Researchers invariably make the mistake of undertaking comparisons that are based upon the examination of state structures and visible non-state actors such as terrorist groups. However an important way in which nationalism is constructed is through the analysis, albeit an often crude analysis of other situations around the world. The otherness upon which nations are formed depends upon neither spatial proximity nor even contact.
5 Township Futures

Kesteman et al (1998, chapter 15) entitle the penultimate chapter of their book on the Eastern Townships, “Une specificité culturelle menacée”. In 1978 L’Office de planification et du développement du Québec concluded that the Townships (Estrie) lacked a collective conscience and a socio-cultural ideal. They describe the Townships as a crossroads (carrefour) between Montreal, Quebec City, Maurice, Les Bois Francs and the New England States (Kesteman et al 1998, 684). I share this view of the Townships to a great extent. However, I believe that the cultural region of the Eastern Townships continues to exist in the consciousness of residents (certainly anglophone residents) and maintained through organisations such as the Townshippers Association as well as through Historical Societies and through publications such as that of Kesteman et al (1998) themselves. The Townships have long been ethnically, religiously and linguistically multicultural. These identities have been redefined over the years. The English, Scottish and Irish becoming English Canadians or anglophones and the French French-Canadians or francophones. Some anglophones married francophones and many francophones have British names and some anglophones French names. Former Quebec premier Daniel Johnson was a Townshipper- a francophone from Richmond. Even if the ‘francisation’ of Townships continues unabated, I do not believe that the English language heritage of the Townships will be destroyed. Place names like Sherbrooke, Richmond, Knowlton, North Hatley and Stanstead will always bear testimony to the English language heritage of the Townships. The oldest written evidence about the Townships will remain written in the English language.

The culture of the Townships and the identities of their residents have changed and will always continue to change. Nevertheless, the Townships will always remain in my imagination as a cultural region of Quebec. I know I still have much to learn about the history and cultures of the Townships. I cannot tell what the future holds for me, yet the Eastern Townships will always hold a special place in my life.

Inevitably, I am often asked if I think that Quebec will/ should remain part of Canada. On balance I believe that Quebec will remain in Canada, but the national question of Quebec will not disappear as everybody becomes ‘enlightened’ to this ‘anachronism’ of separatism. The spaces of nationalism and multiculturalism, both in the realm of ideas and ‘on the ground’ will continue to shift and be redefined. We may see another referendum in the near future; a Quebec government may take the Sortie de Secours (Lisée 2000) but in any case the desire, indeed the necessity to maintain the French language in Quebec will remain. As I demonstrated in the first chapter the whole idea of the ‘nation’, as we understand the term today, is a relatively new one. One respondent, Andy, told me, “There will be changes, but there will always be Canada”. For the foreseeable future I think that he is right, but I cannot tell the future. Canada itself is a young country- just 135 years old since confederation. Nations have shifted their boundaries for as long as time began. Empires and nations have been built and have fallen. Peoples have migrated from one place to another taking their language and culture with them. The historical geography of the nation is characterised not by continuity, but by change.
6 Key findings of thesis

Nationalism is constructed for a macro-historical discourse which is historically and territorially incomplete.
Examining nationalism at a local level demonstrates that outcomes are different to those which may be expected through the use of historical texts.
Regions can be neglected in the construction of a nation’s history.
“Successful” nation-building requires an ideological unification of national identity. By virtue of the of the federal system of Canadian government this may be achieved through the institutions of the Quebec provincial state. This use of the state may include the passing of laws, but may also include the institutions of the church and state education system in producing ‘banal’ forms of nationalism.

References

Bélanger, M (1994) L’Anse-aux-Moyacs, en Minganie de l’Ouest; Les Paspéïas du bout de la route. PhD thesis, Department of Anthropology, Université de Montréal

Canning, J (2002) From Yankees to québecois: Nation-building and national identity in Quebec’s Eastern Townships. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Bristol, UK

Kesteman, J-P; Southam, P; Saint-Pierre, D (1998) Histoire des Cantons de l’Est, Sainte-Foy, Les presses de l’université Laval

Lefebvre, H (1991) The Production of Space. Oxford, Blackwell.

Lisée, J-F (2000) Sortie de Secours. Comment échapper au déclin du Québec. Montreal, Boréal

Noël, M (1997) The Native Peoples of Québec. Quebec, Les Éditions Sylvain Harvey

Penrose, J (1994a) ‘’Mon pays ce n’est pas un pays’ Full Stop: the concept of nation as a challenge to the nationalist aspirations of the Parti Québécois’. Political Geography 13.2 pp.161-181

Selected historical works on the Eastern Townships

Day, C M (1863) Pioneers of the Eastern Townships: a work containing official and reliable information respecting the formation of settlements, with incidents in their early history, and details of adventures, perils and deliverances. Montreal, John Lovell.

Day, C M (1869) History of the Eastern Townships, Province of Quebec, Dominion of Canada: civil and descriptive. Montreal, John Lovell.

Kesteman, J-P; Southam, P; Saint-Pierre, D (1998) Histoire des Cantons de l’Est, Sainte-Foy, Les presses de l’université Laval

Little, J I (1989) Évolution ethnoculturelle et identité régional des Cantons de l’Est. Ottawa, Societé historique du Canada.

Little, J I (1991) Crofters and Habitants. Settler Society, Economy, and Culture in a Quebec Township 1848-1881. Montreal and Kingston, McGill-Queens University Press

Little, J I (1997) State and Society in Transition. The Politics of Institutional reform in the Eastern Townships 1838-1852. Montreal and Kingston, McGill-Queens University Press

Ross, A (1943) The Cultural effects of Population Changes in the Eastern Townships. Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 9,4 pp.447-462

Ross, A (1950) Ethnic Relations and Social Structure. A Study of the Invasion of French- Speaking Canadians into an English Canadian District. PhD thesis. Department of Sociology, University of Chicago.

Ross, A (1954) French and English Canadian Contacts and Institutional Change. Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 20,3 pp.281-295

Ross, W G (1967) A Century of Change in Selected Eastern Townships Villages: Barnston, Hatley, Huntingville, Massawippi. Centennial Project, Department of Geography, Bishop’s University.

Ross, W G (1996) Three Eastern Townships Mining Villages in Québec 1863-1972. Albert Mines, Capleton, Eustis. Sherbrooke QC, Les Productions GGC Ltée

Roy, J (1992) L’exode des jeunes du milieu rural: En quête d’un emplois ou d’un gendre de vie? Recherches sociographique 33,3 pp.429-444

Thomas, C (1866) Contributions to the History of the Eastern Townships: A work containing an account of the early settlement of St. Armard, Durham, Sutton, Brome, Potton and Bolton. With a history of the Principle events that have transpired in each of these Townships up to the present time. Montreal, John Lovell.

Footnotes

(1) Many stores in downtown Montreal advertise for bilingual staff.

(2) “Where the river narrows.” (Noël 1997, 40).

© John Canning 2002

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